The First World War broke out on July 28, 1914. As Europe became embroiled in a gruesome war, America, led by its President, maintained a stance of neutrality. That all changed on April 6, 1917, when President Wilson addressed Congress to declare that the United States was at war.
In the aftermath of this declaration, a staggering 290,000 African American men were conscripted into the armed forces, yet they were relegated to entirely segregated military units. These units, often under-resourced and overlooked, were a stark reflection of the deep-rooted racial divisions present in American society at the time.
As these soldiers embarked on their journeys to training camps and the front lines of Europe, they faced numerous challenges. In southern towns, the trains carrying African American troops often encountered hostility, including gunfire from those with deep-seated racial animosities. Despite these dangers, the soldiers persevered, demonstrating their resilience in the face of adversity.
Upon arriving in Europe, the situation for these men did not improve. Rather than being integrated into combat units alongside their white counterparts, they were frequently assigned to menial labor positions and support roles. Tasks such as unloading supplies, maintaining vehicles, and other non-combat duties became the norm for these soldiers, denying them the opportunity to fight for their country on the front lines.
One of the men conscripted into service was Robert Simmons, who was conscripted on October 28, 1917, his 27th birthday.
Simmons, a private in Company C of the 323rd Labor Battalion, was tasked with support work during World War I. On September 13, 1918, he demonstrated remarkable courage by refusing orders to chop wood, a simple act that would have significant consequences for his future.
Shortly after his refusal, Simmons publicly declared he could no longer serve while wearing the U.S. military uniform. In a symbolic gesture of his discontent, he tore up a $10 bill, rejecting not just the monetary value but also the principles he felt were betrayed by the institution he was conscripted into. His actions led to a court-martial, a formal military trial assessing his defiance against the strict codes of conduct expected from those in uniform.
In January 1919, Robert Simmons was subjected to a court-martial. He pleaded guilty to the charges against him, resulting in a dishonorable discharge from military service. The sentence was harsh: ten years of hard labor.
During the trial, a poignant letter penned by Simmons was presented as Exhibit A, providing insight into his unwavering convictions. In the letter, he expressed his steadfast refusal to bow down and worship any idol, stating emphatically, “Robert Simmons won’t bow down and worship any image of Gold or Silver upon the shoulders of men. Neither will I worship any images of Silk. Robert Simmons knows but one God; besides Him, there is no other.” Simmons was incarcerated at the United States Disciplinary Barracks in Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, a facility notorious for housing military prisoners. Here, he was registered as general prisoner #17417.
On August 5, 1919, Simmons and approximately 130 other inmates were transferred to the Pacific Branch of the United Disciplinary Barracks, a facility on the infamous Alcatraz Island.
As they arrived, the cold winds of San Francisco Bay swept over the island, a stark reminder of the harsh reality they now faced. The rocky terrain, surrounded by treacherous waters, was a natural fortress and a relentless prison, where escape was nearly impossible, reinforcing the already punitive atmosphere that enveloped the penitentiary. For these men, life on Alcatraz would be defined by strict routines, hard labor, and a looming sense of despair. Each day represented a struggle for survival and a battle against the psychological toll of confinement in such a forbidding environment.
Robert Simmons arrived at Alcatraz on August 11, 1919. As general prisoner #11821, Simmons stood out among the throng of inmates. He was one of only thirty conscientious objectors housed at the infamous prison, a group that found themselves at odds with societal expectations and governmental demands.
What distinguished Simmons even further was his designation as one of a dozen “absolutist” conscientious objectors, a classification he received due to his refusal to comply with any subsequent military orders or undertake any work.
At Alcatraz, Simmons faced an array of severe punishments and an unending series of extended sentences, primarily due to his designation as an absolutist conscientious objector. This classification placed him at odds with the militaristic ethos of those in charge of the prison, who viewed his unwavering stance against violence and war as an affront to their authority.
At Alcatraz, the solitary confinement section was dubbed “the hole.” This grim space was designed to isolate inmates from the rest of the population, enforcing psychological and physical punishment. At one point, Simmons was confined to “the hole” for fourteen days. When he was not in solitary confinement, he was often disciplined by being placed in a smaller sub-cell. There, he was chained to the cell door and forced to stand without the ability to sit or turn around for a total of eight hours each day, which was the same duration that the other prisoners on the island worked.
Simmons’ incarceration drew substantial criticism from various civil rights organizations, highlighting deep concerns about civil liberties and the treatment of individuals within the U.S. military system. Notably, the National Civil Liberties Bureau formally petitioned the U.S. military, calling for reassessment and action regarding Simmons’ treatment. This complaint ultimately found its way to the desk of Secretary of War Newton D. Baker. Despite the weight of the allegations and the advocacy behind them, no significant action was taken to address the issue or to rectify the concerns raised.
In 1921, a magazine called The Messenger wrote that the only persons to suffer more from Alcatraz’s ‘barbarities’ were the ‘ill-fated Hofer brothers.’ They also said that Simmons was “a quiet, inoffensive religious objector who had already gone through a series of horrors in American camps in France. He was thrown into an underground dungeon on a bread and water diet for two weeks at a time until the use of the dungeon was stopped. Then he was ordered to go to work but refused because of conscientious objection to submitting to military orders. Each morning he was carried to a dump cart, swung into the air and thrown into a heap into the cart, transported to the place of work and thrown to the ground where he lay until he was hauled back at noon. This was repeated in the afternoon. Then he was put in solitary confinement in a dark cell for two weeks. Since that did not succeed, he was placed in one of the newly constructed iron man cages, like coffins placed on end in which a man could not change from the enforced erect position. The commondant told Simmons he would have to stand there for the whole of his ten-year sentence unless he yielded and went to work. Simmons smiled and stayed there.”
The overall environment surrounding this situation brought to light Simmons’ case and broader issues of justice and human rights within military confinement. Advocates feared the implications of neglect and the potential for abuse within such institutions. The dungeons of Alcatraz, infamous for their harsh conditions, remained operational, highlighting a critical gap in oversight and accountability. It was not until the American Civil Liberties Union intervened, demanding a high-level military inspection of the prison, that attention shifted toward reform and adherence to constitutional treatment standards.
World War I officially ended on November 11, 1918. However, Simmons continued to face challenges and remained incarcerated at Alcatraz long after the armistice. He was finally released on February 27, 1920. By the end of his sentence, Simmons had spent 84 days in solitary confinement, which was the maximum allowed by U.S. Army regulations at that time.
It was reported that “his gentle sturdiness had gained for him the respect of inmates and guards alike. The commandant and other officers believed him crazy.”
After being released, he relocated to Southern California.
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